Formació de Tècnics Esportius :: Iniciació i Alt Rendiment Esportiu
–
RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Data
Collection Techniques QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE SOURCES SIGNIFICANCE PROBLEM
STATEMENT FUNCTIONS STANDARDS
OF ADEQUACY META-ANALYSIS STEPS
IN LITERATURE REVIEW PURPOSE
OF RESEARCH DESIGN PROCEDURES DATA
COLLECTION TECHNIQUES VALIDITY
OF DESIGN SUBJECTS APPROPRIATE
STATISTICS determined
by: TYPES TECHNICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEASURES USED OT JUDGE
OVERALL
QUALITY AND
APPROPRIATENESS TESTS QUESTIONNAIRES INTERVIEW
SCHEDULES UNOBTRUSIVE
MEASURES OBSERVATION
SCHEDULES DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH CORRELATIONAL
RESEARCH SURVEY
RESEARCH CHARACTERISTICS
OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH SINGLE-SUBJECT
DESIGNS PRE-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS THREATS
TO VALIDITY STATISTICAL
TESTS NONPARAMETRIC PARAMETRIC ETHICS PURPOSEFUL
SAMPLING STRATEGIES PHASE
OF DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSES CASE
STUDY DESIGN INTERNAL
VALIDITY EXTERNAL
VALIDITY RELIABILITY FORESHADOWED
PROBLEMS ENTRY
INTO THE FIELD DATA
COLLECTION STRATEGIES CHARACTERISTICS USES
OF TYPES
OF ANALYTICAL RESEARCH CODING
TOPICS AND CATEGORIES PATTERNS PRESENTATION
OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS DATA
MANAGEMENT PURPOSES
OF EVALUATION EVALUATION
APPROACHES CRITERIA
USED TO JUDGE QUALITY POTENTIAL
BENEFITS LIMITATIONS PERSPECTIVE CHARACTERISTICS METHODS TYPES
OF POTENTIAL
BENEFITS LIMITATIONS FORMS
OF RESEARCH
COMMUNICATION QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH PROPOSALS QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH PROPOSALS Ethnographic Historical
and Legal COMMON
WEAKNESSES
*) Procesos Básicos en
el Desarrollo de una
Investigación
1. Realizar
el proyecto o
propuesta de
investigación.
Es un plan detallado
donde se plantea el
problema a
investigar, así como
su alcance y
limitaciones; se
analiza la
bibliografía
relativa para situar
lo diferencial que
aporta el problema
planteado en un
ámbito de la
ciencia; y se
concretan todos los
procesos
metodológicos a
desarrollar para dar
solución a este
problema de
investigación.
2.
Desarrollar y
aplicar todo lo
planeado en el
proyecto o propuesta
de investigación a
la práctica,
realizando sus
correspondientes
análisis,
reflexiones y
conclusiones.
3. Redactar
la memoria o informe
de investigación.
Es la memoria de
todo el trabajo
desarrollado donde
destaca el capítulo
de las conclusiones
específicas del
problema de
investigación
planteado. Es
recomendable y da
rigor la inclusión
de apartados sobre
las aplicaciones
prácticas y las
futuras líneas de
investigación.
Así, debería existir
un primer
documento:”el
proyecto o propuesta
de investigación”;
y un documento
final:”la memoria o
informe de
investigación”.
*)››› Traducción y
Resumen de “Thesis
Outline Guide” ·
Kinesiology
Department IU · June
1991
–
Guía para la
Memoria/Informe del
Proyecto Final de
Grado
DESGLOSADO:
*) ›› Traducción y
Resumen de “Thesis
Outline Guide” ·
Kinesiology
Department IU ·
Portada-Presentación-Índice
*) ›› Traducción y
Resumen de “Thesis
Outline Guide” ·
Kinesiology
Department IU ·
Contenido PRESENTACIÓN
La traducción y
resumen del
documento “Thesis
Outline Guide” (School
of Health, Physical
Education and
Recreation HPER,
Indiana University,
1991) pretende ser
una selección de
recursos relevantes
para redactar una
memoria de
investigación.
Debido a la variedad
de opciones según el
tipo de
investigación, se
han omitido la
mayoría de capítulos
relativos a
procedimientos y
análisis de datos,
para centrar este
resumen en
aspectos aplicables
a la gran mayoría de
proyectos.
Aunque en la
actualidad es fácil
acceder a multitud
de informaciones
sobre los procesos
de investigación,
considero
diferencial y
eminentemente eficaz
la estructura que
plantea la “Thesis
Outline Guide” de la
Universidad de
Indiana en la que
los puntos
esenciales de cada
contenido se
acompañan de
ejemplos realizados
por los estudiantes
de doctorado.
Este documento está
pensado como una
herramienta práctica
para los
entrenadores que
cursan los estudios
superiores de
técnico deportivo en
el Institut del CAR
de Sant Cugat del
Vallès (Barcelona),
especialmente para
los que realizan el
proyecto final de
grado.
Evidentemente,
también puede ser
muy útil para los
estudiantes y
profesores
universitarios.
David Ribera-Nebot ·
May 2013
*) ››› Outline para la
Propuesta o Proyecto
de Investigación –
Guidelines for
Research Proposals *)›› Errores Comunes
en Informes/Memorias
de Investigación ·
Extraído de “Thesis
Outline Guide” IU
1991 *) ›› Propuesta de
AutoEvaluación de
los Contenidos del
Proyecto de Grado *)Ejemplo de Portada
del Proyecto, Tesis
o Disertacion (a)
*)Ejemplo de Portada
del Proyecto, Tesis
o Disertación (b)
*)Ejemplo de Portada
del Proyecto, Tesis
o Disertación (c)
*)Ejemplo de Portada
del Proyecto, Tesis
o Disertación (d)
*)
Ejemplo de Tabla de
Contenidos en
Investigación
Experimental y
“Survey” de la
Memoria
del Proyecto, Tesis
o Disertación *) Consideraciones de
la Tabla de
Contenidos en
Investigación
Histórica de la
Memoria del
Proyecto, Tesis o
Disertación *)
Ejemplo de Tabla de
Contenidos de una
Tesis Rusa típica
del ámbito del
Movimiento *)
Ejemplos de
Abstracts y Posters
En Google Education
Sports Performance
Institute · Tecnic
Esportiu
*)
Links a algunos
recursos de
investigación:
Universia – Red de
Universidades
Institutos
Universitarios,
Recursos,
Bases de Datos,
Convocatorias y
Planes de
Investigación,
Tesis,
Redacción Científica,
Servicios
Universitarios,
Premios,
Otras Instituciones
y Centros.
PubMed
PubMed comprises
more than 20 million
citations for
biomedical
literature from
MEDLINE, life
science journals,
and online books.
Citations may
include links to
full-text content
from PubMed Central
and publisher web
sites.
ACSM
American College of
Sports Medicine ECSS
European College of
Sport Science European Educational
Research Association
EERA
was founded to
encourage
collaboration
amongst educational
researchers in
Europe.
ERIC – Education
Resources
Information Center
ERIC – is an online
digital library of
education research
and information.
ERIC is sponsored by
the Institute of
Education Sciences (IES)
of the U.S.
Department of
Education.
Google Académico
Buscador google de bibliografia
científica y
acadèmica.
Free Full PDF
Over 80 million of
free scientific
articles, patents,
theses and posters
in PDF CRAI de la UB
Centre de Recursos
per l’Aprenentatge i
la Investigació de
la Universitat de
Barcelona *) Unos libros para
las consultas
generales:
FUNDAMENTOS DE
INVESTIGACIÓN
Best J.W. (1982).
Como Investigar en
Educación (9a
Edición). Madrid:
Ediciones Morata
S.A. Traducción del
original “Research
in Education” (Prentice
Hall Inc., 1ª
Edición: 1961).
Thomas, J.R. & Nelson, J.K. (1990). Research Methods in Physical Activity (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Schumacher, S. & McMillan, J.H. (1993). Research in Education: A Conceptual Introduction (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins College Publishers.
FUNDAMENTOS DE
ESTADÍSTICA APLICADA
Pagano, R.R. (1994).
Understanding
Statistics in the
Behavioral Sciences
(4th ed.). St. Paul,
MN: West Publishing
Company.
FUNDAMENTOS DE
EDICIÓN
American
Psychological
Association (2010).
Publication Manual,
6th Edition.
Washington: APA.
Scientific writing in English with an emphasis for a successful abstract submission, primarily targeting non-native speakers by Dr. Hilary Glasman-Deal (Imperial College in London, United Kingdom):
Presentation Vocabulary – Introduction Vocabulary – Results Vocabulary – Discussion Oral Presentation Scientific Poster Interuniversity
Style Guide for
Writing
Institutional Texts
in English )
Resúmenes en inglés
basados en apuntes
de investigación del Kinesiology
Department – HPER
(Indiana University,
Bloomington
· 1994-1996):
*
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
- Beliefs
- Tradition
- Personal
- Experience
- Logic
- Intuition
§Process for developing knowledge:
Identify Problem Conduct Empirical Studies Replicate Studies Synthesize Research Adoption and Evaluation § Process
- Select problem
- Review literature
- Select specific hypothesis
- Collect data
- Analyze data
- Interpret findings
- State conclusions
§ Characteristics
- Objective
- Precise
- Verifiable
- Explanatory
- Empirical
- Logical
- Probabilistic
§ Limitations
- Human subjects
- Public institutions
- Complexity of research problem
- Methodological dificulties
§ Functions of Basic Research
- Concerned with knowing, explaining, and predicting natural and social phenomena
- Starts with theory, principle or generalization
- Tests theories
§ Functions of Applied Research
- Conducted in the field
- Deals with practical problems
§ Functions of Evaluation Research
- Assesses merit and worth of particular practices
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Experimental
Researcher manipulates independent variable to investigate cause-and-effect relationship between independent and dependent variable.
- True experimental
- Quasi-experimental
- Single-subject
Nonexperimental
Researcher describes things that have occurred, examines relationships without suggesting causation, or explores causal relationships among variables that cannot be manipulated.
- Descriptive
- Correlational
- Survey
- Expost facto
Ethnographic Analytical
Researcher describes behaviors as they occur in the natural envionment.
- Concept
- Historical
- Legal
Quantitative Designs
Use numbers to describe or measure the results.
- Structured observations
- Standardized interviews
- Tests
- Questionnaires
- Unobtrusive measures
Qualitative Designs
Use words to collect the data.
- Ethnographic observations and interviews
- Documents
RESEARCH REPORTS
Standard format with:
Abstract Introduction Statement of Research Problem Review of Literature Statement of Research Hypotheses/Questions Methodology Results Discussion, Implications, Conclusions References Diverse format with:
Introduction Methodology Findings and Interpretation Conclusions
RESEARCH PROBLEMS
- Casual observation
- Deductions from theory
- Related literature
- Current social and political issues
- Practical situations
- Personal experience
Determined by if they:
- Provide knowledge
- Test theories
- Increase generalizability
- Extend empirical understandings
- Advance methodology
- Focus of current issue
- Evaluate specific practice or policy
- Are exploratory studies
Specifies the focus, educational, context, importance, and the frameworks for reporting the findings.
In Quantitative Research
- Use deductive logic
- Identify population, variables, and logic of the problem
- Write statement clearly and concisely
- Write statement as research purpose, questions, or hypotheses before data is collected
Research Purpose
- Suggests the design of the study
Research Questions
- Descriptive
- Relationship
- Difference
Research Hypotheses Should:
- State expected relationship or difference between two or more variables
- Be testable
- Offer tentative explanation
In Qualitative Research
- Use inductive logic
- State problem initially in planning for the study
- Write statement as research purpose or questions
- Reformulate problem statement during data collection
Research Questions
- Ethnographic
- Historical
- Legal
Assessment of
Evaluate in terms of specific criteria related to:
- General research problem
- Significance of the problem
- Research questions and hypotheses in quantitative research
- Research questions in qualitative research
LITERATURE REVIEW
- Defines and limits problem
- Places study in perspective
- Avoids replication
- Selects methods and measures
- Relates findings to previous research
Suggests further research Judged adequate by 3 criteria:
- Selection of literature
- Criticism of literature
- Summary and Interpretation
Uses statistical techniques to synthesize results of prior independently conducted studies Steps:
- Formulate research synthesis problem
- Collect data
- Evaluate data
- Analyze and interpret data
- Public presentation
Analyze problem statement Search and read secondary literature Select appropriate index Identify descriptors Conduct manual/computer search analyze research problem determine type of search select database select descriptors conduct literature search analyze printout Read relevant primary literature Organize notes abstract articles on index cards organize literature by developing appropriate classification system Write review
Quantitative Research:
- Organize by sections (introduction, critical review, summary)
- Organize criticism by dates, variables/treatments, research designs and methods, general to closely related literature, or combination of these
Qualitative Research:
- Conduct preliminary literature review
- Continually review literature during data collection and analysis
- Alternative presentations of literature (a) separate discussions (b) integration within text
DESIGNING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
To provide a credible answer to a research question.
Must be presented in detail and specify:
- when, where, and how data will be collected
- experimental treatment (where applicable)
- procedures used to control bias
Questionnaires Standardized Interviews Tests Standardized Observations Inventories Rating Scales Unobtrusive Measures Basic Principles Common to All Methods:
§ Test Validity Inferences made on the basis of scores from an instrument must be appropriate, meaningful, and useful § Test Reliability Refers to consistency of measurement § Internal Validity Refers to extent of control over extraneous variables § External Validity Refers to generalizability of results Two general categories:
Populations external validity Ecological external validity Subjects are:
individuals who participate in the study referred as the sample selected from a larger group called the population § Sample Size Determined by the type of research, research hypotheses, financial constraints, importance of results, number of variables studied, methods of data collection, and degree of accuracy needed.
§ Methods of Selection Nonprobability sampling
- using available subjects
Probability sampling
- using following procedures to select unbiased sample:
- simple random sampling
- systematic sampling
- stratified random sampling
- cluster sampling
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Indices that summarize or characterize a larger number of observations Purpose of the research Measurement Scale Nominal._ numbers represent categories Ordinal._ numbers indicate rank Interval._ numbers represent equal intervals Ratio._ numbers represent equal units from zero
Measures of Central Tendency
Each provides a numerical index of the typical score in the distribution Mean._ average of all scores Median._ point that divides distribution in half Mode._ score that occurs most frequently Relationship among mean, median, and mode:
a) Normal distribution: all indicates the same b) Skewed distributions: mean lies closest to tail, mode lies furthest from tail, median lies between mean and mode
Measures of Variability
Indicates spread of scores from the mean of the distribution Range._ difference between highest and lowest score Standard deviation._ indicates average variability of scores Standard scores._ have constant normative or relative meaning
Measures of Relationship
Indicates the relationship between variables Scatter plot – graphic representation – correlation coefficient – numerical Graphic Portrayal: provides pictorial representation of group data Frequency distribution._ indicates number of times each score was attained Histogram & Frequency Polygon._ pictorial display of frequency data
DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Validity Refers to the extent to which inferences made from the results are appropriate and meaningful Four Components:
- Content-related
- Concurrent criterion-related
- Predictive criterion-related
- Construct related
Reliability Refers to the consistency of measurement Types:
- Stability
- Equivalence and Stability
- Internal Consistency
Cognitive 1. Standardized._ provide uniform procedures 2. Norm-referenced._ compare individuals to norming group 3. Aptitude._ predict future performance 4. Achievement._ measure prior learning 5. Performance assessment._ measures proficiency by observing student perform skills of interest Noncognitive Includes inventories that measure traits such as interests, attitudes, self-concept, values, personality, and beliefs Are economical, can assure anonymity, and permit use of standardized questions Steps:
- justify use
- define objectives
- write questions and statements
(items can be scaled, ranked, or have open or closed form)
- decide on general and item format
- pretest questionnaire
Oral questions and answers Steps:
- construct interviews schedule
(questions may be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured
- pretest questions
- remove or rephrase leading questions
- consider characteristics of interviewer that may influence responses
- decide on how responses will be recorded
Provide data that are uninfluenced by an awareness of the subjects that they are the participants Major types:
- physical traces
- archives
- simple observation
- contrived observation
Recording of naturally occurring behavior Steps:
- justify observational method
- define precisely what will be observed
- decide how behaviors will be recorded
(duration, frequency count, interval recording, continuous observation, time sampling)
- train observers
NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
Concerns with current state of something.
Developmental Studies:
Investigate changes of subjects over time.
Can be longitudinal or cross-sectional.
Simple Relationship Studies:
Correlation coefficient calculated from scores on two variables.
Predictive Studies:
- The criterion variable is predicted by a prior behavior.
- Several predictor variables are used to make a more accurate prediction.
Interpreting Correlational Research:
- Correlation does not infer causation.
- Spurious correlations over- o under- represent actual relationship between two variables.
- Correlation coefficient expresses degree of covariance between variables.
- Coefficient of determination expresses common variance between variables.
Uses questionnaires or interviews to describe the characteristics of populations.
Steps:
1. Define purpose and objectives 2. Select resources and target population 3. Choose and develop techniques for gathering data 4. Determine method of sampling 5. Write letter of transmittal 6. Send follow-up letters to subjects who have not responded 7. Check nonrespondents
EX POST FACTO RESEARCH
Investigates whether pre-existing conditions caused differences in groups.
Steps:
1. Formulate research problem 2. Identify plausible rival hypotheses 3. Find and select groups that will be compared 4. Collect and analyze data including data on factors that may constitute rival hypotheses
EXPERIMENTAL AND SINGLE-SUBJECT DESIGNS
- Statistical equivalence of subjects in different groups.
- Two groups or conditions that can be compared are needed.
- Manipulation of independent variable.
- Measurement of dependent variables in numerical terms.
- Use of inferential statistics.
- Control of extraneous variables.
- a) A-B: target behavior observed during baseline (A) and treatment (B) phases to determine effect of treatment.
- b) A-B-A: same as (a) with addition of second baseline (A) phase.
- c) Multiple-baseline: treatment replicated across two or more students, behaviors, or settings.
- a. One-group posttest only: effect of treatment given to one group is observed.
- b. One-group pretest-posttest: group is observed before and after implementing treatment.
- c. Posttest only with nonequivalent groups: similar to (a) with one addition. A control group receives no treatment or a different one.
Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups.
§ a. Pretest-posttest control group: experimental group(s) receive(s) pretest, treatment, posttest; control group receives pre-and posttest.
§ b. Posttest only control group: experimental group(s) receive(s) treatment, posttest; control group receives posttest only.
No random assignment of subjects § a. Nonequivalent pretest-posttest control group: experimental group receives pretest, treatment, posttest; control group receives pre- and posttest.
§ b. Time-series: one group of subjects is measured repeatedly before and after treatment.
Threats to Internal Validity
May include: history, selection, statistical regression, pretesting, instrumentation, subject attrition, maturation, diffusion of treatment, experimenter effects, treatment replications, subject effects, statistical conclusion.
Threats to External Validity
May include two general categories: population and ecological.
STATISTICS
The researcher employs an inferential statistics test to determine the probability that the null is untrue. Level of significance indicates the chance that it is wrong to reject the null.
- Inferential Statistics: Are used to make inferences about populations based on data from samples.
- Probability: A scientific way of stating the degree of confidence in predicting something.
- Null Hypothesis: A statement of no relationship between two or more variables.
- Level of Confidence: Expressed as a decimal e.g., .01, .05.
Statistical procedures used when the assumptions necessary to use parametric tests are violated.
Chi-Square: Used with nominal data to test relationships between frequency of observations in categories of independent variables.
Median Test Mann-Whitney U Test Sign Test Wilconxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test Kruskal-Wallis One-way Anova of ranks Statistical test that assume normality in the:
- population
- homogeneity of variance
- interval or ratio scale data
T-Test Used to compare means of 2 groups to determine the probability that the corresponding population means are different.
Independent Samples T-Test Used to compare means of 2 groups that have no relationship to each other.
Dependent Samples T-Test Used to compare means of 2 groups in which subjects are paired or matched in some way.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
One-way ANOVA: used to compare 2 or more sample means on one independent variable.
Factorial ANOVA: used to compare 2 or more sample means on 2 or more independent variables.
Two-way or three-way ANOVA denotes the exact number of independent variables.
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
Two major purposes:
1. To adjust initial group differences statistically on one or more variables that are related to the dependent variable but uncontrolled.
2. To increase the likelihood of finding a significant difference between group means.
Multivariate Analyses A family of statistics used when there are more than one independent variable, more than one dependent variable or both.
Post Hoc Comparisons Statistical tests (e.g., Fisher’s LSD. Tukeys HSD, Scheffe’s Test) that are used with pairs of means.
Usually conducted after a test of all means together.
DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Ethical principles are similar to those of quantitative research.
Site selection Comprehensive sampling Maximum variation sampling Network sampling Sampling by case type 1. Planning 2. Beginning data collection 3. Basic data collection 4. Closing data collection 5. Completion Researcher selects one phenomenon to understand in depth Purposes:
To develop concept or model To describe and analyze a situation, event, or process To evaluate a program To identify policy issues To contribute to large scale research projects Used as a precursor to quantitative research Threats include:
history maturation observer / researcher effects selection attrition alternative explanations Strategies to Enhance Internal Validity lengthy data collection period participants language field research disciplined subjectivity Threats are effects which limit comparability and translatability and include:
selection setting history theoretical In Design: Reliability is enhanced by making explicit 6 aspects:
researcher role informant selection social context data collection and analyses strategies analytical premises In Data Collection: Strategies used to reduce threats to reliability:
verbatim accounts low inference descriptors multiple researchers mechanically recorded data participant researcher member checking participant review negative cases
ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
Anticipated research problems which will be reformulated during data collection Reflect naturalistic discovery-orientation, and the initial conceptual framwork Indicate focus of data collection strategies Involves the following 1. Site selection 2. Mapping the field: social, spacial and temporal maps 3. Selection of interviewers 4. Choosing the research role a. observer-participant b. participant-observer c. interviewer PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION On-site observation: researcher is present in the field or site for an extensive time.
Prolonged Data Collection: data is collected until naturalistic event ends or is no longer relevant.
Obtaining people’s perceptions of reality expressed in their actions as feelings, thoughts, and beliefs.
Corroborating field observations.
Observing and recording phenomena salient to the foreshadowed problems. Use of field notes and summary observations.
INTERVIEWING Selecting type of interview informal conversational interview guide approach standardized open-ended key-informant career and life history Determining content of questions, writing quality questions, and deciding their sequence Taking into account factors that influence an interview session-duration, number of interviews, settings, identity of the individuals, and informant style.
Deciding how responses will be recorded-handwritten, or tape recorded, or both.
Typing handwritten records, or transcribing tapes.
DOCUMENT AND ARTIFACT COLLECTION Selecting type of document or artifact personal documents official documents objects erosion measures Analyzing and interpreting documents and artifact collection
ANALYTICAL RESEARCH
- 1. Topics of analysis: historical, legal, policy
- 2. Types of sources: documents, oral testimonies, and relics
- 3. Search for facts: requires locating primary and secondary sources
- 4. Analytical generalizations and explanations: inductive logic applied to generalizations to suggest causal explanations
- 5. Kinds of analysis: conceptual, interpretative, comparative, and universal analyses, edition, descriptive narration.
- 1. Provides knowledge and explanation to the past
- 2. Clarifies present legal and policy discussions
- 3. Creates a sense of common purpose about education in the society
Educational Concepts
Focuses on the meaning of a concept (e.g., education, literacy, knowledge) by describing the generic meaning, the essential meanings, and the appropriate usage of the concept.
Researcher uses 3 types of analysis:
- generic
- differential
- conditions
Educational Historical and Policy Events
Focuses on biographies, movements, institutions, practices, analysis and distribution of power, policy-making processes, and policy content changes.
Researcher:
1. Identifies topic and develops problem statement.
2. Locates primary and secondary sources in documents and oral testimonies.
3. Looks at the relationship between facts and interprets them as generalizations. Synthesizes generalizations and provides causal explanations or conclusions.
Educational Case Law
Focuses on legal issues to discover what is the law in specific situations Researcher:
1. Selects a problem in terms of party/parties subject matter or property involved, nature of claim, and object or remedy sought.
2. Locates primary sources (federal, state, and local statutes, and court decisions), and secondary sources (e.g., legal periodicals, yearbooks, casebooks and others).
3. Uses the case study design to analyze statutes and court decisions, synthesize primary and secondary sources, and to state a definitive position on a legal issue.
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
An inductive process of organizing data into categories and identifying patterns (relationships) among categories. Data analysis entails several cyclical phases.
§ Analysis that occurs during data collection:
Discovery Analysis:
Strategies include:
- writing observer comments and summaries
- playing with ideas
- exploring the literature
- using metaphors and analogies
Interim Analysis:
Assists in making data collection decisions and identifying emerging topics and recurring meanings.
Typically occurs after data collection.
Developing an organizing system to divide data into segments.
§ Steps:
1. Get a sense of the whole 2. Generate topics from the data 3. Compare duplication of topics 4. Try out provisional classification system 5. Refining organizing system Developing topics into discrete categories.
§ Predetermined categories: derived from research problem, interview guide, literature, and researcher’s prior knowledge.
§ Emic categories: represent insider’s view i.e. terms, actions, and explanations that are distinctive to the settings or people.
§ Etic categories: represent outsider’s views i.e. researcher’s concepts and scientific explanations.
Finding relationships among categories.
Techniques for pattern-seeking:
§ gauging data trustworthiness § using triangulation § evaluating discrepant or negative evidence § ordering categories for patterns § sorting categories for patterns § constructing integrative diagrams § doing logical cross-analyses A pattern becomes an explanation only when alternative patterns do not offer reasonable explanations central to the research problem.
Qualitative studies:
§ Present context and quotations of participant language as data.
§ Are written in a variety of formats; detailed reporting, descriptive-analytical interpretations, and abstract theoretical discussions.
§ Develop data filing system.
§ Manage data manually (cut-and-file, and file-card techniques), or using the computer (word processing, or text analysis programs).
EVALUATION RESEARCH
Formative: evaluation designed and used to improve a practice in the early stages of development.
Summative: evaluation designed to determine the merit, worth, or both of a developed practice, and to make recommendations regarding its use.
Objectives-oriented: determines degree to which objectives of a practice are attained by a target group.
Decision-oriented: supplies information for needs assessment, program planning, program implementation or outcomes.
Naturalistic and participant-oriented: uses multimethods to provide an understanding of the divergent values of a practice from the participants’ perspectives.
Utility: does the evaluation serve the needs of a given audience?
Feasibility: is the evaluation realistic, frugal, and diplomatic?
Propriety: has the evaluation been conducted legally and ethically?
Accuracy: does the evaluation provide accurate information about the practices studied?
Systematic implementation of school improvements Cost analyses of large expenditures Assessment of educational effects on students Appraisal of the quality of education Reduction of uncertainty in innovative practices Legitimization of decisions Enlightenment of influentials in decision and policy arenas to better anticipate program and policy issues Failure of studies to improve educational practices and educational policy formulation.
Failure to appreciate that research is only one of many influences on educational policies, practices, and decisions.
POLICY ANALYSIS
Central concept is choice Uses two approaches:
Macro-based on economic and system models Micro-incremental activist, field oriented, and eclectic Multidimensional in focus Uses an empirico-inductive research orientation Incorporates past and future Responds to study users Incorporates values Focused synthesis Secondary analysis Field experiments Qualitative interviews Surveys Case studies Cost analysis:
cost benefit cost effectiveness cost utility cost feasibility Indicator systems. Functions of:
provides information about the operation of a program determines success of a program suggest areas of further study accountability Case Studies multisite studies critical ethnography eclectic case studies Systematic implementation of school improvements Cost analyses of large expenditures Assessment of educational effects on students Appraisal of the quality of education Reduction of uncertainty in innovative practices Legitimization of decisions Enlightenment of influentials in decision and policy arenas to better anticipate program and policy issues Failure of studies to improve educational practices and educational policy formulation.
Failure to appreciate that research is only one of many influences on educational policies, practices, and decisions.
GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH PROPOSALS
Research proposal Thesis or dissertation Journal article Evaluation and technical report Paper presentations I. Introduction a. General statement of the problem b. Review of the literature c. Specific research question and/or hypotheses d. Significance of the proposed study II. Design and Methodology a. Subjects b. Instrumentation c. Procedures d. Data Analysis and Presentation e. Limitations of the Design III. References IV. Appendices I. Introduction a. General statement of the problem b. Preliminary literature review c. Foreshadowed Problems d. Significance of the proposed study II. Design and Methodology a. Site or social network selection b. Research role c. Purpose sampling strategies III. References or Bibliography IV. Appendices I. Introduction a. General statement of the problem b. Preliminary literature review c. Specific research historical questions or legal issues d. Significance of the proposed study
II. Design and Methodology a. Case study design b. Sources: search, selection and criticism c. Inductive data analysis d. Limitations of design III. References or Bibliography IV. Appendices Problem is trivial and not delimited.
Objectives of the study are too general.
Methodology is lacking in detail appropriate for the study.
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